Fifty years on: Lessons from marine reserves in New Zealand and principles for a worldwide network

New Zealand pioneered marine reserves, areas in the sea protected from all direct human interference. The first reserve was proposed in 1965 and established in 1977. It has operated successfully ever since. Even one instance proves that such things are possible. All marine reserves in NZ were initially greeted by a range of objections, and widespread and often loud opposition, This is not surprising since marine reserves prohibit many existing activities and seriously challenge many general opinions. Such opposition is to be expected. Successful establishment of marine reserves in the first stage was only possible when the proponents were very persistent and had community support. It helped if they could take advantage of some special local circumstance e.g. an adjacent marine laboratory (Leigh), spectacular underwater scenery (Poor Knights), unique biogeography (Kermadecs), cultural significance (Mayor Island), or severe fishery prob-